Black Sea

Black Sea map.png
Max length 1,175 km (730 mi)
Surface area 436,400 km2 (168,500 sq mi)
Max depth 2,206 m (7,238 ft)
Water volume 547,000 km3 (131,200 cu mi)
Islands 10+
Illustration of the Black Sea, from NASA’s World Wind globe software
Swallow's Nest

The Black Sea is an inland sea bounded by Europe, Anatolia and the Caucasus and is ultimately connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the Mediterranean and Aegean Seas and various straits. The Bosphorus strait connects it to the Sea of Marmara, and the strait of the Dardanelles connects it to the Aegean Sea region of the Mediterranean. These waters separate eastern Europe and western Asia. The Black Sea also connects to the Sea of Azov by the Strait of Kerch.

The Black Sea has an area of 436,400 km2 (168,495.0 sq mi) (Non-include Sea of Azov),[1] a maximum depth of 2,206 m (7,238 ft),[2] and a volume of 547,000 km3 (131,200 cu mi).[3] The Black Sea forms in an east-west trending elliptical depression which lies between Bulgaria, Georgia, Romania, Russia, Turkey, and Ukraine.[4] It is constrained by the Pontic Mountains to the south, the Caucasus Mountains to the east and features a wide shelf to the north-west. The longest east-west extent is about 1,175 km.

Important cities along the coast include Batumi, Burgas, Constanţa, Giresun, Istanbul, Kerch, Kherson, Mangalia, Năvodari, Novorossiysk, Odessa, Ordu, Poti, Rize, Samsun, Sevastopol, Sochi, Sukhumi, Trabzon, Varna, Yalta and Zonguldak.

The Black Sea has a positive water balance, which results in a net outflow of water 300 km³ per year through the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles into the Aegean Sea (part of the Mediterranean Sea). Mediterranean water flows into the Black Sea as part of a 2-way hydrological exchange. The Black Sea outflow is cooler and less saline, and therefore floats over the warm, more saline Mediterranean inflow, leading to a significant anoxic layer well below the surface waters. The Black Sea also receives river water from large Eurasian fluvial systems to the north of the Sea, of which the Don, Dnieper and Danube are the most significant.

In the past, the water level has varied significantly. Due to these variations in the water level in the basin the surrounding shelf and associated aprons have sometimes been land. At certain critical water levels it is possible for connections with surrounding water bodies to become established. It is through the most active of these connective routes, the Turkish Straits, that the Black Sea joins the global ocean system. When this hydrological link is not present, the Black Sea is a lake, operating independently of the global ocean system. Currently the Black Sea water level is relatively high, thus water is being exchanged with the Mediterranean. The Turkish Straits connect the Black and Aegean Seas and comprise the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara and the Dardanelles.

Contents

Extent

The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Black Sea as follows:[5]

On the Southwest. The Northeastern limit of the Sea of Marmara [A line joining Cape Rumili with Cape Anatoli (41°13'N)].

In the Kertch Strait. A line joining Cape Takil and Cape Panaghia (45°02'N).

Name

Modern names

Current names of the Sea are equivalents of the English name, "Black Sea", including Adyghe: (Хы ШIуцI), Greek Mavri Thalassa (Μαύρη Θάλασσα), Bulgarian Cherno more (Черно море), Georgian Shavi zghva (შავი ზღვა), Laz Ucha Zuğa, or simply Zuğa 'Sea', Romanian Marea Neagră, Russian Chornoye more (Чёрное море), Turkish Karadeniz, Ukrainian Chorne more (Чорне море), Ubykh [ʃʷad͡ʒa]. Such names have not yet been shown conclusively to predate the twelfth century, but there are indications that they may be considerably older.

Sunset on the Black Sea at Laspi
The estuary of the Veleka in the Black Sea. Longshore drift has deposited sediment along the shoreline which has led to the formation of a spit, Sinemorets, Bulgaria

The Black Sea got its name from the Ottoman Turks.'Kara (Black)' denotes 'North' in Medieval Turkish, as in Kara Denizi- Kara Sea north of Siberian Yakut Turks, similar to Black Sea. In Turkish 'Red' denotes south as in Kizil Deniz, Red Sea to the south of Anatolia, while 'Ak'-White denotes west. The old name for the Aegean and the Mediterranean combined in Anatolian Turkish is "Akdeniz" -the White Sea-; although in contemporary Turkish, Akdeniz denotes only the Mediterranean Sea as now the northern part of the Mediterranean is called the Aegean Sea following its Western name. During the Ottoman times this was not the case as the Aegean was called the Sea of Islands -Adalar Denizi referring to the 12 islands laying between Greece and Anatolia.

The Black Sea is one of four seas named in English after common color terms — the others being the Red Sea, the White Sea and the Yellow Sea.

Historical names

Strabo's Geography (1.2.10) reports that in antiquity, the Black Sea was often just called "the Sea" (ho pontos). For the most part, Graeco-Roman tradition refers to the Black Sea as the 'Hospitable sea', Euxeinos Pontos (Εὔξεινος Πόντος). This is a euphemism replacing an earlier 'Inhospitable Sea', Pontos Axeinos, first attested in Pindar (early fifth century BCE,~475 BC). Strabo (7.3.6) thinks that the Black Sea was called "inhospitable" before Greek colonization because it was difficult to navigate, and because its shores were inhabited by savage tribes. The name was changed to "hospitable" after the Milesians had colonized southern shoreline, the Pontus, making it part of Greek civilization.

It is also possible that the name Axeinos arose by popular etymology from a Scythian Iranic axšaina- 'unlit,' 'dark'; the designation "Black Sea" may thus date from Antiquity.

One Bulgarian understanding of the name is that the sea used to be quite stormy. The Black Sea deluge theory is based on that idea.

A map of Asia dating to 1570, entitled Asiae Nova Descriptio, from Ortelis's Theatrum lables the sea "Mar Maggior."

In naval science, the Black Sea is thought to have received its name because of its hydrogen sulphide layer that begins about 200 metres below the surface, and supports a unique microbial population which produces black sediments probably due to anaerobic methane oxidation.

Geology and bathymetry

Bay of Sudak

The geological origins of the basin can be traced back to two distinct relict back arc basins which were initiated by the splitting of an Albian volcanic arc and the subduction of both the Paleo-and Neo-Tethys Oceans, but the timings of these events remain controversial.[6][7] Since its initiation, compressional tectonic environments led to subsidence in the basin, interspersed with extensional phases resulting in large-scale volcanism and numerous orogenies, causing the uplift of the Greater Caucasus, Pontides, Southern Crimea and Balkanides mountain ranges. The ongoing collision between the Eurasian and African plates and westward escape of the Anatolian block along the North Anatolian Fault and East Anatolian Faults dictates the current tectonic regime,[8] which features enhanced subsidence in the Black Sea basin and significant volcanic activity in the Anatolian region.[9] It is these geological mechanisms which, in the long term, have caused the periodic isolations of the Black Sea from the rest of the global ocean system.

The modern basin is divided into 2 sub-basins by a convexity extending south from the Crimean Peninsula. The large shelf to the north of the basin is up to 190 km wide, and features a shallow apron with gradients between 1:40 and 1:1000. The southern edge around Turkey and the western edge around Georgia, however, are typified by a shelf that rarely exceeds 20 km in width and an apron that is typically 1:40 gradient with numerous submarine canyons and channel extensions. The Euxine abyssal plain in the centre of the Black Sea reaches a maximum depth of 2,212 m (7,257.22 ft) just south of Yalta on the Crimean Peninsula.[10]

The littoral zone of the Black Sea is often referred to as the Pontic littoral.

Hydrology and hydrochemistry

This SeaWiFS view reveals the colourful interplay of currents on the lake’s surface.

The Black Sea is the world’s largest meromictic basin where the deep waters do not mix with the upper layers of water that receive oxygen from the atmosphere. As a result, over 90% of the deeper Black Sea volume is anoxic water. The current hydrochemical configuration is primarily controlled by basin topography and fluvial inputs, which result in a strongly stratified vertical structure and a positive water balance. The upper layers are generally cooler, less dense and less salty than the deeper waters, as they are fed by large fluvial systems, whereas the deep waters originate from the warm, salty waters of the Mediterranean. This influx of dense water from Mediterranean is balanced by an outflow of fresher Black Sea surface-water into the Marmara Sea, maintaining the stratification and salinity levels.

The surface water has an average salinity of 18 to 18.5 parts per thousand (compared to 30 to 40 for the oceans) and contains oxygen and other nutrients required to sustain biotic activity. These waters circulate in a basin-wide cyclonic shelfbreak gyre known as the Rim Current which transports water round the perimeter of the Black Sea. Within this feature, two smaller cyclonic gyres operate, occupying the eastern and western sectors of the basin. Outside the Rim Current, numerous quasi-permanent coastal eddies are formed due to upwelling around the coastal apron and ‘wind curl’ mechanisms. The intra-annual strength of these features is controlled by seasonal atmospheric and fluvial variations. The temperature of the surface waters varies seasonally from 8 °C (46 °F) to 30 °C (86 °F).

Directly beneath the surface waters the Cold Intermediate Layer (CIL) is found. This layer is composed of cool, salty surface waters, which are the result of localised atmospheric cooling and decreased fluvial input during the winter months. The production of this water is focussed in the centre of the major gyres and on the NW shelf and as the water is not dense enough to penetrate the deep waters, isopycnal advection occurs, dispersing the water across the entire basin. The base of the CIL is marked by a major thermocline, halocline and pycnocline at ~100–200 m and this density disparity is the major mechanism for isolation of the deep water.

May 2004. Phytoplankton blooms and plumes of sediment form the bright blue swirls that ring the Black Sea in this Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) image

Below the pycnocline, salinity increases to 22 to 22.5 ppt and temperatures rise to around 8.5 °C (47.3 °F). The hydrochemical environment shifts from oxygenated to anoxic, as bacterial decomposition of sunken biomass utilises all of the free oxygen. Certain species of extremophile bacteria are capable of using sulfate (SO42−) in the oxidation of organic material, which leads to the creation of hydrogen sulfide (H2S). This enables the precipitation of sulfides such as the iron sulphides pyrite, greigite and iron monosulphide, as well as the dissolution of carbonate matter such as calcium carbonate (CaCO3), found in shells. Organic matter, including anthropogenic artifacts such as boat hulls, are well preserved. During periods of high surface productivity, short-lived algal blooms form organic rich layers known as sapropels. Scientists have reported an annual phytoplankton bloom that can be seen in many NASA images of the region.[11] As a result of these characteristics the Black Sea has gained interest from the field of marine archaeology as ancient shipwrecks in excellent states of preservation have been discovered, such as the Byzantine wreck Sinop D, located in the anoxic layer off the coast of Sinop, Turkey.

Modelling shows the release of the hydrogen sulphide clouds in the event of an asteroid impact into the Black Sea would pose a threat to health—or even life—for people living on the Black Sea coast.[12]

Ecology

The Black Sea supports an active and dynamic marine ecosystem, dominated by species suited to the brackish, nutrient-rich, conditions. As with all marine food webs, the Black Sea features a range of trophic groups, with autotrophic algae, including diatoms and dinoflagellates, acting as primary producers. The fluvial systems draining Eurasia and central Europe introduce large volumes of sediment and dissolved nutrients into the Black Sea, but distribution of these nutrients is controlled by the degree of physiochemical stratification, which is, in turn, dictated by seasonal physiographic development.[13] During winter, strong wind promotes convective overturning and upwelling of nutrients, while high summer temperatures result in a marked vertical stratification and a warm, shallow mixed layer.[14] Day length and insolation intensity also controls the extent of the photic zone. Subsurface productivity is limited by nutrient availability, as the anoxic bottom waters act as a sink for reduced nitrate, in the form of ammonia. The benthic zone also plays an important role in Black Sea nutrient cycling, as chemosynthetic organisms and anoxic geochemical pathways recycle nutrients which can be upwelled to the photic zone, enhancing productivity.[15]

Phytoplankton

The main phytoplankton groups present in the Black Sea are dinoflagellates, diatoms, coccolithophores and cyanobacteria (see list below). Generally, the annual cycle of phytoplankton development comprises significant diatom and dinoflagellate-dominated spring production, followed by a weaker mixed assemblage of community development below the seasonal thermocline during summer months and a surface-intensified autumn production.[14][16] This pattern of productivity is also augmented by an Emiliania huxleyi bloom during the late spring and summer months.

The effect of pollution on Black Sea ecology

Since the 1960s, rapid industrial expansion along the Black Sea coast line and the construction of a major dam has significantly increased annual variability in the N:P:Si ratio in the basin. In coastal areas, the biological effect of these changes has been an increase in the frequency of monospecific phytoplankton blooms, with diatom bloom frequency increasing by a factor of 2.5 and non-diatom bloom frequency increasing by a factor of 6. The non-diatoms, such as the prymnesiophytes Emiliania huxleyi (coccolithophore), Chromulina sp., and the Euglenophyte Eutreptia lanowii are able to out-compete diatom species because of the limited availability of Si, a necessary constituent of diatom frustules.[21] As a consequence of these blooms, benthic macrophyte populations were deprived of light, while anoxia caused mass mortality in marine animals.[22][23] The decline in macrophytes was further compounded by overfishing during the 1970s, while the invasive ctenophore Mnemiopsis reduced the biomass of copepods and other zooplankton in the late 1980s. Additionally, an alien species—the warty comb jelly (Mnemiopsis leidyi)—was able to establish itself in the basin, exploding from a few individuals to an estimated biomass of one billion metric tons.[24] The change in species composition in Black Sea waters also has consequences for hydrochemistry, as Ca-producing coccolithophores influence salinity and pH, although these ramifications have yet to be fully quantified. In central Black Sea waters, Si levels were also significantly reduced, due to a decrease in the flux of Si associated with advection across isopycnal surfaces. This phenomenon demonstrates the potential for localised alterations in Black Sea nutrient input to have basin-wide impacts.

Pollution reduction and regulation efforts have led to a partial recovery of the Black Sea ecosystem during the 1990s, and an EU monitoring exercise, 'EROS21', revealed decreased N and P values, relative to the 1989 peak.[25] Recently, scientists have noted signs of ecological recovery, in part due to the construction of new sewage treatment plants in Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria in connection with membership in the European Union. Mnemiopsis leidyi populations have been checked with the arrival of another alien species which feeds on them.[26]

Jellyfish, near Romanian coast

Actinia, near Romanian coast

Actinia, near Romanian coast

Goby, near Romanian coast

Stingray, near Romanian coast

Goat fish, near Romanian coast

Hermit crab, near Romanian coast

Blue sponge, near Romanian coast

Spiny dogfish (Black Sea Sharks at Risk)

Seahorse, near Romanian coast

Climate

Short-term climatic variation in the Black Sea region is significantly influenced by the operation of the North Atlantic Oscillation, which is a term used to describe the climatic mechanisms resulting from the interaction between the north Atlantic and mid-latitude air masses.[27] While the exact mechanisms causing the North Atlantic Oscillation remain unclear,[28] it is thought the climate conditions established in western Europe mediate the heat and precipitation fluxes reaching Central Europe and Eurasia, regulating the formation of winter cyclones, which are largely responsible for regional precipitation inputs[29] and influence Mediterranean Sea Surface Temperatures (SST's).[30] The relative strength of these systems also limits the amount of cold air arriving from northern regions during winter.[31] Other influencing factors include the regional topography, as depressions and storms systems arriving from the Mediterranean are funneled through the low land around the Bosphorus, Pontic and Caucasus mountain ranges acting as wave guides, limiting the speed and paths of cyclones passing through the region[32]

Mediterranean connection during the Holocene

The Bosporus, taken from the International Space Station
Map of the Dardanelles

The Black Sea is connected to the World Ocean by a chain of two shallow straits, the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus. The Dardannelles are 55 m (180.45 ft) deep and the Bosporus is as shallow as 36 m (118.11 ft). By comparison, at the height of the last Ice age, sea levels were more than 100 m (328.08 ft) lower than they are now. There's also evidence that water levels in the Black Sea, too, were considerably lower at some point during the post-glacial period. Thus, for example, archeologists found fresh-water snail shells and man-made structures in roughly 328 feet (100 m) of water off the Black Sea coast of modern Turkey. Therefore it is agreed that the Black Sea has been a landlocked freshwater lake (at least in upper layers) during the last glaciation and for some time after.

In the aftermath of the Ice Age, water levels in the Black Sea and the Aegean Sea rose independently until they were high enough to exchange water. The exact timeline of this development is still subject to debate. One possibility is that the Black Sea filled first, with excess fresh water flowing over the Bosporus sill and eventually into the Mediterranean Sea. There are also catastrophic scenarios, such as the "Black Sea deluge theory" put forward by William Ryan and Walter Pitman.

Deluge hypothesis

In 1997, William Ryan and Walter Pitman from Columbia University published a hypothesis according to which a massive flood through the Bosphorus occurred in ancient times. They claim that the Black and Caspian Seas were vast freshwater lakes, but then about 5600 BC, the Mediterranean spilled over a rocky sill at the Bosporus, creating the current communication between the Black and Mediterranean Seas. Subsequent work has been done both to support and to discredit this hypothesis, and archaeologists still debate it. This has led some to associate this catastrophe with prehistoric flood myths.[33]

History

Medieval map of the Black Sea
Ivan Aivazovsky. Black Sea Fleet in the Bay of Theodosia, just before the Crimean War

The Black Sea was a busy waterway on the crossroads of the ancient world: the Balkans to the West, the Eurasian steppes to the north, Caucasus and Central Asia to the East, Asia Minor and Mesopotamia to the south, and Greece to the south-west. The oldest processed gold in the world, arguably left by Old Europeans, was found in Varna, and the Black Sea was supposedly sailed by the Argonauts. The land at the eastern end of the Black Sea, Colchis, (now Georgia), marked for the Greeks an edge of the known world. The steppes to the north of the Black Sea have been suggested as the original homeland (Urheimat) of the speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language, (PIE) the progenitor of the Indo-European language family, by some scholars (see Kurgan; others move the heartland further east towards the Caspian Sea, yet others to Anatolia). Numerous ancient ports line Black Sea's coasts, some older than the pyramids.[34]

The Black Sea was a significant naval theatre of World War I and saw both naval and land battles during World War II.

Archaeology

Ancient trade routes in the region are currently being extensively studied by scientists, as the Black Sea was sailed by Hittites, Carians, Thracians, Greeks, Persians, Cimmerians, Scythians, Romans, Byzantines, Goths, Huns, Avars, Bulgars, Slavs, Varangians, Crusaders, Venetians, Genoese, Tatars, Ottomans, and Russians. Perhaps the most promising areas in deepwater archaeology are the quest for submerged prehistoric settlements in the continental shelf and for ancient shipwrecks in the anoxic zone, which are expected to be exceptionally well preserved due to the absence of oxygen. This concentration of historical powers, combined with the preservative qualities of the deep anoxic waters of the Black Sea, has attracted increased interest from marine archaeologists who have begun to discover a large number of ancient ships and organic remains in a high state of preservation.

Holiday resorts and spas

Cities of the Black Sea
Amasra is located in small island in Black Sea
Neptun, Romania
Photo of the Black Sea near Gagra, Abkhazia, Russian Empire taken in 1915

In the years following the end of the Cold War, the popularity of the Black Sea as a tourist destination has been steadily increasing. Overall, tourism at Black Sea resorts has become one of the region's growth industries.[35] The following is a list of well-known Black Sea resorts:

1 Abkhazia has been a de facto independent republic since 1992, although remains a de jure autonomous republic of Georgia.

The Commission on the Protection of the Black Sea Against Pollution

The Commission on the Protection of the Black Sea Against Pollution

Mission.

Acting on the mandate of the Black Sea countries (Bulgaria, Georgia, Romania, Russian Federation, Turkey and Ukraine) which on the 21-04-1992, signed and shortly thereafter ratified the Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea Against Pollution, the Commission on the Protection of the Black Sea Against Pollution (the Black Sea Commission) implements the provisions of the Convention and the Black Sea Strategic Action Plan.

Main Challenges

Regional organizations

Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC)      members      observers
GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development
Community of Democratic Choice (CDC)      members      observers
Black Sea Forum for Partnership and Dialogue (BSF)      members      observers

See also the Balkans Regional organizations and Post-Soviet Regional organizations

See also

References

  1. ↑ Surface Area—"Black Sea Geography". University of Delaware College of Marine Studies. 2003. http://www.ocean.udel.edu/blacksea/geography/index.html. Retrieved 2006-12-02. 
  2. ↑ Maximum Depth—"Europa - Gateway of the European Union Website". Environment and Enlargement - The Black Sea: Facts and Figures. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/enlarg/blackseafactsfigures_en.htm. 
  3. ↑ "Unexpected changes in the oxic/anoxic interface in the Black Sea". Nature Publishing Group. 1989-03-30. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v338/n6214/abs/338411a0.html. Retrieved 2006-12-02. 
  4. ↑ Socio-economic indicators for the countries of the Black Sea basin. (2001). In UNEP/GRID-Arendal Maps and Graphics Library. Retrieved 2 December 2006 from http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/sosio_economic_indicators_for_the_countries_of_the_black_sea_basin_giwa.
  5. ↑ "Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition". International Hydrographic Organization. 1953. http://www.iho-ohi.net/iho_pubs/standard/S-23/S23_1953.pdf. Retrieved 7 February 2010. 
  6. ↑ McKenzie, D. P. (1970). "Plate Tectonics of the Mediterranean Region." Nature 226(5242): 239–243.
  7. ↑ McClusky, S., S. Balassanian, et al. (2000). "Global Positioning System constraints on plate kinematics and dynamics in the eastern Mediterranean and Caucasus." Journal of Geophysical Research-Solid Earth 105(B3): 5695–5719.
  8. ↑ Shillington, D. J., N. White, et al. (2008). "Cenozoic evolution of the eastern Black Sea: A test of depth-dependent stretching models." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 265(3–4): 360–378.
  9. ↑ Nikishin, A. M., M. V. Korotaev, et al. (2003). "The Black Sea basin: tectonic history and Neogene–Quaternary rapid subsidence modelling." Sedimentary Geology 156(1–4): 149–168.
  10. ↑ "Remote Sensing of the European Seas" (2008) ISBN 1402067712, p. 17
  11. ↑ Black Sea Becomes Turquoise earthobservatory.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2 December 2006.
  12. ↑ R.D. Schuiling, R.B. Cathcart, V. Badescu, D. Isvoranu and E. Pelinovsky, "Asteroid impact in the Black Sea. Death by drowning or asphyxiation?", Natural Hazards (October 2006) DOI: 10.1007/s11069-006-0017-7
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 Oguz, T., H. W. Ducklow, et al. (1999). "A physical-biochemical model of plankton productivity and nitrogen cycling in the Black Sea." Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers 46(4): 597-636.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Oguz, T. and A. Merico (2006). "Factors controlling the summer Emiliania huxleyi bloom in the Black Sea: A modeling study." Journal of Marine Systems 59(3-4): 173-188.
  15. ↑ Friedrich, J., C. Dinkel, et al. (2002). "Benthic Nutrient Cycling and Diagenetic Pathways in the North-western Black Sea." Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 54(3): 369-383.
  16. ↑ Eker, E., L. Georgieva, et al. (1999). "Phytoplankton distribution in the western and eastern Black Sea in spring and autumn 1995." Ices Journal of Marine Science 56: 15-22.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Eker-Develi, E. and A. E. Kideys (2003). "Distribution of phytoplankton in the southern Black Sea in summer 1996, spring and autumn 1998." Journal of Marine Systems 39(3-4): 203-211.
  18. ↑ Krakhmalny, A. F. (1994). "Dinophyta of the Black Sea (Brief history of investigations and species diversity)." Algologiya 4: 99-107.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Gomez, F. and L. Boicenco (2004). "An annotated checklist of dinoflagellates in the Black Sea." Hydrobiologia 517(1): 43-59.
  20. ↑ Uysal, Z. (2006). "Vertical distribution of marine cyanobacteria Synechococcus spp. in the Black, Marmara, Aegean, and eastern Mediterranean seas." Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography 53(17-19): 1976-1987.
  21. ↑ Humborg, C., V. Ittekkot, et al. (1997). "Effect of Danube River dam on Black Sea biogeochemistry and ecosystem structure." Nature 386(6623): 385-388.
  22. ↑ Sburlea, A., L. Boicenco, et al. (2006). "Aspects of eutrophication as a chemical pollution with implications on marine biota at the Romanian Black Sea shore." Chemicals as Intentional and Accidental Global Environmental Threats: 357-360.
  23. ↑ Gregoire, M., C. Raick, et al. (2008). "Numerical modeling of the central Black Sea ecosystem functioning during the eutrophication phase." Progress in Oceanography 76(3): 286-333.
  24. ↑ Woodard, Colin, Ocean's End: Travels Through Endangered Seas, New York: Basic Books, 2000, pp. 1–28
  25. ↑ Lancelot, C., J. Staneva, et al. (2002). "Modelling the Danube-influenced north-western continental shelf of the Black Sea. II: Ecosystem response to changes in nutrient delivery by the Danube River after its damming in 1972." Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 54(3): 473-499.
  26. ↑ Woodard, Colin, "The Black Sea's Cautionary Tale," Congressional Quarterly Global Researcher, October 2007, pp. 244–245
  27. ↑ Hurrell, J. W. (1995). "Decadal trends in the North-Atlantic oscillation – Regional temperatures and precipitation" Science 269(5224): 676–679.
  28. ↑ Lamy, F. H. W. A. G. C. B. A. B. and J. Pätzold (2006). "Multicentennial-scale hydrological changes in the Black Sea and northern Red Sea during the Holocene and the Arctic/North Atlantic Oscillation." Paleoceanography 21: PA1008.
  29. ↑ Turkes, M. (1996). "Spatial and temporal analysis of annual rainfall variations in Turkey." International Journal of Climatology 16(9): 1057–1076.
  30. ↑ Cullen, H. M., A. Kaplan, et al. (2002). "Impact of the North Atlantic Oscillation on Middle Eastern climate and streamflow." Climatic Change 55(3): 315–338.
  31. ↑ Ozsoy, E. and U. Unluata (1997). "Oceanography of the Black Sea: a review of some recent results." Earth-Science Reviews 42: 231–272.
  32. ↑ Brody, L. R., Nestor, M.J.R. (1980). Regional Forecasting Aids for the Mediterranean Basin. Handbook for Forecasters in the Mediterranean, Naval Research Laboratory. 2.
  33. ↑ E.g., William Ryan and Walter Pitman, Noah's Flood: The New Scientific Discoveries About the Event That Changed History. Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, New York, NY, 1998.
  34. ↑ "The Black Sea". Chadparmet.home.comcast.net. http://chadparmet.home.comcast.net/~chadparmet/BlackSea/overview/blacksea.html. Retrieved 2010-04-23. 
  35. ↑ "Bulgarian Sea Resorts". http://www.bulgariansearesorts.com. Retrieved 2007-02-02. 

Bibliography

External links

Countries bordering the Black Sea

 Bulgaria ·  Georgia ·  Romania ·  Russia ·  Turkey ·  Ukraine